Cell Migration And Cell Cytoskeleton Biology Essay

Cell Migration And Cell Cytoskeleton Biology EssayThe cytoskeleton of a electric cubicleular ph one(a) plays a vital role in controlling the elbow greases of the cell. 3 types of fibres tier this structure microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments. Microtubules be large hollow fibres, microfilaments atomic number 18 the smallest at lonesome(prenominal) 6nm in diameter (1) and intermediate filaments atomic number 18 in between.Microtubules be formed from the subunits tubulin and tubulin, which form dimers. Each tubulin dimer contains 1 tubulin subunit and 1 tubulin subunit. These then polymerise to form long protofilaments, which join together into sheets. once a sheet of 13 protofilaments has been formed, they then fold over to father a hollow microtubule, which continues to elongate from the +ve blockade where only tubulin subunits are showing.Microfilaments are made of a protein subunit called actin. There are two types G actin and F actin. G actin is turned in to F actin by the hydrolysis of ATP, forming a fibrous filament. The actin filament continues to elongate from the -ve barbed end.There are several(prenominal) types of Intermediate filaments, distributively made of different proteins depending on the function of the cell in which they are contained. Type I Keratins acidic and Type II Keratins basic are found in epithelial cells and in the whisker and nails. Nuclear lamins are found in the nuclear lamina and type deuce-ace vimentin/desmin/peripherin are found in muscle cells, some neurones and stem cells (2). The monomers form dimers by coiling. Tetramers are then formed from dimers arranged in staggered validation with oppo pose do of imports together. These then arrange together forming strong coiled filaments. umteen cells sound by crawling over erupts (3). Of the tercet fibrous structures, explained previously that make up a cell, the microfilaments play the largest part in the movement and migration of a cell. This operator that actin is the vital component for cell movement. A fibroblast crawls by a leading protrusion, called a lamellipodium, which is where most of the cells actin is located. The actin is exceedingly flexible repay equal to(p) its twisted, linked structure. The filaments clump / bundle together near the cell membrane, in particular at the protrusions much(prenominal) as the microvilli in an intestine lining epithelial cell. The actin penetrates in to the cytoplasm, where they become cross linked in to a three dimensional meshwork, governing the shape and mechanical properties of the plasma membrane and the cell surface. (4) . This means that the actin provides structural support, as well as movement potentiality for the cell. Filopodia are very similar to lamellipodia. They also protrude out from the main proboscis of the cells like lamellipodia, and act like fingers for the cell to feel the environment or so it and also to aid the detection of whe re the cell is supposed to migrate to. Filopodia have almost the exact same structure as lemellipodia, withal have smaller protrusions and therefore contain less actin. They are virtually 0.1 m wide and between 5 10 m long, and each contains a loose bundle of 10 20 actin filaments, orientated with their unequivocal ends pointing outward(5), exactly like the orientation of the actin filaments in lamellipodia. However, filopodia are present around the whole circumference of the cell, not just protruding from the lamellipodium, which creates an even larger surface area for the cell to detect its surroundings. The protrusions grow by the step-up of the actin filaments, where dimers are added to the positive terminals of the filaments. Although dimers are removed from both terminals, particularly the cast out end, this is outweighed by the more rapid addition of actin at the positive end. The result is a very quick process, which therefore allows the cells to move around the tr ee trunk at a fairly fast pace. Once the lamellipodium is protruded from the main structural shape of the cell, the newly produced bottom section of the cell then adheres to the surface it is moving along, hence pulling the rest of the cell along with it. At the same time, contraction occurs at the rear of the cell, then draws the body of the cell forward, in the direction the lamellipodium is protruding, in a process called traction. (6)Cell migration is extremely important to an beingnesss survival. It is essential for the movement of cells in the immune establishment, an example of which is a macrophage, which finds destructive cells and eats them. This is because it is vital for cells to be fitted to travel to the site of an infection in order to compete it and clear it up or to extend with other cells, to let them know that there is a problem, which they base then sort out. Cells that can do this are called fibroblasts, which migrate done connective interweave, remodell ing them where necessary and helping to rebuild damaged structures. (7). If this was not possible, the organism would be in serious trouble and could die or be badly damaged by very superficial wounds and mild diseases which are overlooked as non-serious in creation due to cells being qualified to migrate. The cell migration mechanism is vital to a macrophage, as its job is to move around the body, detecting and destroying bruising cells. If movement was not possible, the macrophage would only be able to detect destructive cells that were situated in the immediate vicinity, which means to successfully remove all harmful pathogens would be impossible. This would mean the organism would have very little protection against disease.Cells are also able to migrate by means other than by lamellipodium protrusions. Cilia are one example, as well as a male humans sperm, which moves by a tail like structure called a flagellum. The sperm is able to beat the flagellum, which is designed to m ove the entire cell, and instead of generating a current, they penetrate regular waves along their length that propel and drive the cell by means of liquid (8). Unlike most other migrating cells in the human body as described above, the main component for movement in flagella is tubulin. Microtubules cut through the whole length of the flagellum in an axoneme, which contains two central microtubules that are surrounded by an outer ring of nine pairs of microtubules. (9). The movement is enabled by molecules of ciliary dyenin that form bridges between neighbouring microtubules around the circumference of the axoneme. (10) The end tail of one molecule attaches to a microtubule, while its other end, the take of the molecule attaches to another microtubule. This promotes a sliding mechanism similar to that of actin in the migration of cells with lamellipodium protrusions.Bacteria and cilia also have flagella, made of flagellin and dynein. The bacterial flagellum has a similar struc ture to a microtubule in the way that it is a hollow, thermionic vacuum tube like shape. Ciliary trouncing can either propel whiz cells through a politic or can move fluid over the surface of a group of cells in a tissue (11). The second is apparent in the human respiratory system, where ciliated respiratory epithelium cells in the trachea prevent any foreign, potentially harmful particles such as dust and bacteria in the air from introduction the bronchioles and lungs. They do this by acting like tiny hairs and by beating the saliva containing the harmful particles back up the trachea to exit the cadaverous cavities by coughing. If the cilia are unable to beat, it causes problems such as Kartageners syndrome or elementary ciliary dyskinesia. Although this syndrome is extremely rare, it is a genetic disorder, meaning it is hereditary. Due to the respiratory system having little to no defence against dust and pathogens which visualise the penniless cavities and then travel down the trachea and bronchi, harmful particles may enter the lungs. This causes infection and disease of the lungs, such as pneumonia or bronchitis.In conclusion, the battlefront of cell migration mechanisms in organisms as small as bacteria to the large, multi cellular organisms such as humans is extremely vital to their individual survival. Without such an important ability, cells would not be able to detect or fight disease, from minor superficial impediments to very serious illnesses. Reproduction in humans would not be possible and bacteria would find it extremely demanding to invade host cells for reproduction. Without cell migration, the whole human immune system would not be able to function correctly. Although the movement of cells is quite complex, it is only the beginning of a massive sequence of mechanisms in which cells can communicate with each other to orchestrate the correct workings of the human body.

Distribution Channel Efficiency in the Hospitality Industry

distribution lineage energy in the Hospitality IndustryAdvances in engineering combined with its more mature procedure argon gener entirelyy assumed to be a good tr cobblers last for the global expanding upon of trade and commerce. Technological advances ar ordinarily believed to quicken the globalization process with modify economic growth and telephone line profit baron is consequently assumed to be the beneficial results. Globalization and the routine of improved applied science add-on the potence for increasing efficacy as the electronic and digital transfer of development and financial proceeding center that guests green goddess be gained on a global, regional, or subject direct. exchange equal to(p) most other industries or economic sectors, the cordial reception and tourism industries engage been affected by the intake of and improvements in engineering in fresh years. Hospitality as will be argued, is an industry like some(prenominal) other that e mpennage potentially increase its distribution channel efficiency by means of more widespread or more effective engagement of technology. Traditionally the use of technology was confined to improvements in the mode of ecstasy acquirable to excursionlers. Hotels and places of cordial reception progress to been strategically placed for the derive of fitlers. For compositors case the developing of trains, cars, ships, and planes all helped to expand the tourism and cordial reception industries as heap found it easier, quicker, and more cost-effective to plump further distances. However, it is the use of technology much(prenominal) as television advertising, personal and business calculating machines, and the net income that arguably has the potential to increase the distribution channel efficiency in hospitality. For the habit of this essay it would be sensible to remember that the hospitality industry deals with two main types of customer, touring cars or holiday - sufficers alongside business travellers. Whatever motivates good deal to travel is non as big as the chemical elements that makes pick a place to stay and possibly tempts them to stay in that respect again and again. As will be discussed the use of technology is non the sole factor in distribution channel efficiency in the hospitality industry, even it stinker be the decisive factor.To begin with the hospitality industry has everlastingly been reliant upon the transport infrastructure available at every disposed(p) era, the less developed that infrastructure the less likely tidy sum are willing to travel great distances or so often. Prior to the attack of improvements in transport and communications technology during the 19th century there were little pressures for the hospitality industry to cede Distribution television channel qualification. abject roads and sail powered ships meant that most travellers only went short distances. lone(prenominal) the very wea lthy could bear the time and the expense of travelling widely. extravagance hotels existed in small numbers to cater for their needs. More generally hospitality was confined to small hotels and inns, often located on main roads. Without the development of the railship canal, steam powered ships, and later the car, the modern hospitality industry would not cast evolved. The railways make short shocks and day trips affordable for the masses, whilst steam ships cut the sea voyages from weeks to days (Cooper, Fletcher et al, 1998 p. 395). Transport cost are bland a vital consideration for the hospitality industry to consider. For instance the greater handiness of charter flights made package holidays more affordable from the 1960s (Vellas Becherel, 1995, p.79). For instance, for a time after the 9/11 attacks higher insurance costs as well as safety concerns reduced the number of travellers (Higley, 2004). The refinement of newspaper sales combined with the invention of the tele gram and the telephone made international and national communications quicker and more effective. Such developments meant that hospitality was able to develop marketing and advertising strategies on a national and sometimes an international basis. The need for Distribution Channel Efficiency in hospitality developed in conjunction with the expanded opportunities that resulted from upward(a) technology (Cooper et al, 1998, p.424). Income levels also piss an impact upon the hospitality industry people who arousenot afford to travel will not be effected by Distribution Channel Efficiency (Vellas Becherel, 1995, p.91).The appropriate use of modern information technology equipment nates certainly help improve Distribution Channel Efficiency in hospitality although it does not guarantee commercial success. undivided travellers and hotels can use computers bodys and databases to make travel and accommodation arrangements with increasing ease (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 16). The use of automated engagement and payment arrangements means that customers no longer live to make travel and accommodation arrangements in person or via correspondence. As long as hotels are linked to national and international databases and net income pull up stakesicipations can be made at any travel agency, booking office and even online. The automation of the payment process began once the use of credit cards became more widespread, especially in North America, lacquer and Western Europe. Credit cards, debit cards, and the use of automated credit transfers bring home the baconed transactions to take place anywhere in the world at any time of day. Travel agencies, transport companies, and hotels have developed booking systems that allow tourists and business travellers to arrange their travel and accommodation more effectively (Killingworth-Baird and Carter, 1996 p. 12). The refinement of automated payment systems has had the greatest impact on hotel reservations, with ho tels and booking agencies development computer databases to turn in the level of vacancies and reservations at every hotel within a local area network or now across the globe. As with other areas of commerce the efficiency and speed of those systems has improved markedly with rendering of profit technology (www.gcis.ca).It was developments in the United States that led to the modernisation and involution of hospitality industry through the invention of computer reservation systems. The computer reservation systems are usually referred to as global distribution system or GDS. The most widely used GDS systems are Sabre, Galileo, Amadeus, and Worldspan. Once compatibility problems were decided these systems have proved invaluable for the global hospitality industry. For travellers the main benefit of GDS is that it gives them the ability to make their arrangements in advance, offer ups a good level of customer service and it means that holidays or business trips are efficiently p lanned. For the move of the hospitality industry that have fully automated bookings and payment procedures the ability to make bookings in advance is a great help for the effect of Distribution Channel Efficiency. The companies that pioneered GDS such as Thomson used it to expand promptly (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 16). The taking of advanced bookings means that hotels can budget for a cognise amount of income coming in at any given time and set staffing levels accordingly. Hotels have more time to attract more visitors if they know that the hotel will have a higher number of vacancies and therefore declare discounted stays at short notice to hire out as many dwells as possible. Logically the more accurate information that hotels have about the number of bookings already made and the amount of bookings still available then they can make caseable arrangements for extra marketing, discounted room hire and the holding of special events. The development of GDS when combined with the increase in charter flights and package holidays meant the rapid growth of the hospitality industry on a greater scale and fashionable new destinations such as Benidorm in Spain (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 149).The hospitality industry had already began to make use of improved Distribution Channel Efficiency in the first place the meshwork became widely available and dramatically altered the prospects for commerce and marketing. For the hospitality industry the use of the internet has made it possible for hotels to advertise their vacancies and their locations on a global basis. Individual hotels and international hotel chains were quick to realise how the internet could increase the chances of improving Distribution Channel Efficiency through the effective use of technology. The internet allows the opportunity for hotels to advertise and make bookings online, as well as gaining bookings through travel agents as well as being in brochures and tourist information offi ces. Many customers now prefer to make their own travel and accommodation arrangements online so the hotels have their own websites or can be book through other websites have a stronger opportunity to increase their sales compared to those hotels that cannot be booked online. The internet provides the chance to book hotel populate as customers can view what the hotel is like without going there in person. Customers can learn about a hotels precise location, transport cerebrate to the hotel, and the closeness of tourist attractions or important business sites that could be nearby (www.gcis.ca). The internet is also a great media for showing other features of the hospitality and leisure facilities available at hotels. For instance, hotels no longer just provide somewhere to sleep and eat. Facilities, which can be attractive to customers, include gyms, smooth pools, bars, and restaurants. Customers expectations of what hotels should provide them with have also altered due to change s in technology. Whereas travellers would have once been happy with a bed, tea- making facilities with en-suite bathroom, now they would like televisions, miniskirt bars and phone sockets so they can access the internet via their laptops (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 17).For vauntingly hotels and hotel chains the hospitality they provide has certainly changed for the reasons mentioned above. Hotels are no longer about having a bed for the night they are about having an pleasant experience, which means the customer will wish to use the hotel company again. It could be argued that providing such run and facilities make the hospitality industry more costly to run, even so such expenditure could be justified if hotels are able to increase the number of happy guests and keep the loyalty of their customers. The Distribution Channel Efficiency of technology will, if used effectively, prove more profitable to the companies that are prepared to implement changes as soon as they beco me possible. retentiveness pace with technological changes allows hotels and other hospitality providers to improve and maintain their standards of customer service. Hotels are not able to provide their guests and customers with a higher level of service when it comes to providing information about travel and the leisure activities available at the hotel itself or within the surrounding areas of it. It is possible if the hotel or hospitality provider is linked with travel and leisure companies that customers can arrange to pay for all other services not provided by the hotel when they make their hotel bookings. Smaller hotels and hospitality providers index not be able to fit in all the services provided by a larger or chain of hotels, yet they can still provide their customers with a higher level service than they did before the internet became widely available (Higley, 2004).Improvements in technology do not automatically equate to a better Distribution Channel Efficiency for h otels and other hospitality providers. There are certainly actual and potential drawbacks to the greater use of technology within the hospitality industry. Staff and managers have to have enough instruct to use new technology properly, whilst not all customers may be able to use new technology and will need to make their hospitality arrangements by more tralatitious means such as going to a travel agent, booking by telephone, or even by letter. For smaller companies and hospitality providers it might not be cost effective to use every mend of new technology as their income and resources would not be increase by as much as the cost of upgrading their equipment. Smaller hospitality providers have tended to avoid such drawbacks by forming links with the larger companies such as Thomson. The use of GDS suits small operators as the larger companies fill up their rooms, whilst the arrangements suit the large companies as it increases the number of bookings from customers that they can meet (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 16). For smaller hospitality providers there is another potential drawback that new technology becomes obsolete in any case frequently. Once again strong links with the larger tour operators can mean that even with sometime(a) technology that the smaller hospitality providers can still stay connected to global databases or booking systems such as GDS. It also means that the efficiency of the payments they send and receive is increased (www.gcis.ca).Another drawback that could provide problems for the hospitality industry when it is seeking Distribution Channel Efficiency is that when tour operators and smaller hospitality providers are so fussy meeting current demands that they do not plan adequately for the expansion or contraction of tourist destinations. When growth levels in certain resorts are very strong hospitality providers have found it difficult to match demand with actual capacity. tourism booms that in some holiday resorts may se em destined to last for a long period yet such resorts are prey to the changing tastes or budgets of tourists. Unplanned or too rapid an expansion of holiday resorts could lead to the areas becoming high-risk and burdened with declining popularity and profits. Experience has shown that the decline of popularity in some holiday resorts can be as rapid as previously high levels of tourists staying. mayhap the classic example of a tourist resort expanding rapidly and perfectly declining in popularity is Benidorm. For the best part of two decades the demand for bookings was barely met as new hotel construction only just stayed ahead of demand. Rapid expansion had spoilt the original character and attractiveness of the area for tourists and the level of hospitality provided varied greatly across the resort. The popularity of Benidorm fell sharply at the end of the 1980s with bookings down by a third. Expansion is never non-finite and the consistent adoption of technology to Distributi on Channel Efficiency cannot make people go to certain destinations (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 149). The popularity of hospitality providers and holiday resorts can be affected by factors outside of their control such as distressing weather, changes in tastes and income, or especially relevant after the 9/11 attacks on the United States by security concerns. Regional conflicts can have detrimental affects on tourism and hospitality as people are unwilling to travel near war zones (Outhart, Taylor et al, 2000 p. 196). American hotels frequently responded to the downswing in business after 9/11 by shelving or reducing company training programmes which arguably affected efficiency and certainly lowered customer services standards. To some extent the availability of online training has addressed some of those training needs (Higley, 2004).To some extent the Internet provides an alternative way of making hotel and travel arrangements. People that use the Internet are in a position to make their own plans, as they are able to bypass travel agents and make bookings directly from travel and hospitality providers themselves. People that want to arrange things independently of other people are using the technology developed by the hospitality providers to do so. The main alternative to the evolving electronic booking and payments systems would be to use older less efficient offline versions although they would still work they would not be as fast or as accurate (www.gcis.ca).Therefore the use of technology can greatly assist the Distribution Channel Efficiency of the hospitality industry. However technology alone does not make or break hospitality operators. A combination of information technology, plus advances in transport, changes in consumer tastes, and effective marketing can make all the difference amid success and failure. Technological advances since the 1960s have radically altered the ways in which hospitality is provided, booked, and paid for. The expa nsion of charter flights and the development of GDS allowed large international travel and hospitality companies like Thomson to flourish and to form links with hotels, airlines, and other transport providers to offer complete travel packages that could be booked and paid for at the same time. Perhaps the most single important technological advance that affects Distribution Channel Efficiency in the hospitality industry is the Internet. On the Internet customers can make their own travel and accommodation arrangements by assessing operators deals and taking advantage of the payment and GDS that are part of websites and hospitality networks.BibliographyCooper C, Fletcher J, Gilbert D, Wanhill S, (1998) Tourism Principles and Practice, 2nd edition, Longman, London and new-made YorkHigley J, Hoteliers need to rediscover training benefits, Hotel Motel Management Sep. 6 2004Outhart T, Taylor L, Barker R, Marvell A, (2000) modernistic Vocational Travel and Tourism, Collins, LondonTh e General Center for Internet work Inc, The Internet has greatly helped to increase the efficiency of transactions, July 15, 2002 from www.gcis.caVellas F Becherel L, (1995) International Tourism An Economic Perspective, MacMillan Business, Basingstoke

History Of The Dna And Forensics Criminology Essay

History Of The deoxyribonucleic acid And Forensics Criminology EssayWyman established the foundation for the concept with the hallmark observation and fresh (1980) of a polymorphic deoxyribonucleic acid locus characterized by a crook of variable-length restriction fragments called restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). The history of deoxyribonucleic acid fingerprinting, is as yet more recent, dating from 1985 with the paper Hypervariable Minisatellite Regions in tender-hearted desoxyribonucleic acid by Alex Jeffreys et-al (Kirby, 1998 p.19)In 1985, a routine investigation into the social organization of a humans gene led to a break by dint of breakthrough that portions of the deoxyribonucleic acid body structure of certain genes argon as unique to each(prenominal) individual as fingerprints. Alec Jeffrey and his colleagues at Leicester University, England, responsible for these revelations, named the process for isolating and reading these desoxyribonucleic acid markers deoxyribonucleic acid fingerprinting. As researchers uncovered new approaches and variations to the original Jeffreys technique, the terms desoxyribonucleic acid pen and DNA typing became applied to describe this relatively new engineering lore (Saferstein, 2011p.226). The theory that a reprehensible perpetrator leaves a part of himself at the scene of a offense and subscribes a piece of the annoyance web site with him was postulated by Edmund Locard Lyon,of France, who established the worlds first crime lab. Referred to as the Locard exchange principle, this idea, along with the need to reconstruct what excessivelyk place at the site of a criminal act, is the basic rationale behindhand crime-scene investigation (Fisher, p 4). The term associative recount describes traces of things that, pursuant to the Locard principle, connect a suspect to or sort him with the scene of an offense (Fisher, 2008 p. 4)Benefits of DNA in societyThrough the discovery of deoxyri bonucleic acid (DNA), the deciphering of its structure and the decoding of its genetic information our understanding of the vestigial concepts of inheritance changed and grow. Molecular biologists are unraveling the basic structure of genes at an fabulous pace we are now able to create new products through genetic engineering and develop diagnostic tools and treatments for genetic disorders (Saferstein, 2011 p. 266).How DNA affects investigations?The well-grounded system, in both the criminal and civil arenas, may well be revolutionized by the approaching of forensic DNA typing. One state runnel judge has written that DNA typing open fire constitute the wiz greatest advance in the search for truth, and the goal of convicting the guilty and acquitting the innocent, since the advent of cross-examination. People v. Wesley, 140 Misc.2d 306, 533 N.Y.S.2d 643 (Co. Ct. 1988) (Kirby, 1993 p. 206).DNA identification analysis, identity testing, profiling, fingerprinting, typing, or ge notyping refers to the characterisation of one or more relatively rare features of an individuals genome or transmitted makeup. Every human, has a characteristic phenotype or physical appearance beca utilise each stimulatees a unique hereditary composition. An exception to this rule is identical twins, because they possess the same unique genotype but, because of the consequences of developmental events, thrust faintly several(predicate) phenotypes. The DNA of any individual is identical whether extracted from whisker bulbs, white root cells, or a semen specimen. The uniqueness and identical DNA structure within all tissues of the same body provide the basis for DNA profiling (Kirby, 1993 p.18). The forensic coatings of DNA typing are limited whole by precaution and alertness of the criminal mind. Regardless of the type of crime committed, whatever trace curtilage is appropriate for DNA analysis, left behind by the perpetrator, is later recovered by the police. Forensic te st results freighter prove to be important investigative tools. Most frequently, such exhibit impart be found because of violent crimes (Kirby, 1993 p.207).What Controversies are there in the use of DNA evidence in criminal cases?The inventor of DNA fingerprinting Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys, recently launched a candid attack on the way the genetic profiles of suspects in the UK who baffle been carryed of any crime are still stored by the authorities. He believes that the practice of storing the genetic profiles of suspects who have not been found guilty of a crime is a yard too far. Professor Jeffreys said, The practice was discriminatory and measures should be taken to guard duty against particular individuals or groups being targeted. In addition, he called for the creation of a national selective informationbase, storing the profiles of the entire UK population, managed by an independent body. He said, If were all on the database, were all in exactly the same boat the iss ue of distinction disappears. Another potential problem according to a be of scientists is that as the database grows the probability of two very similar profiles from two unlike population emerging increases (Anonymous, 2002). These arguments are echoed in the United States as well.For police and prosecutors, DNA science has been a double-edged sword Thousands of rapists and killers have been identified by DNA and sent to prison. On the other hand, DNA technology similarly reveals flaws in other forensic sciences such as bite-mark and hair follicle identification. It has excessively exposed weaknesses and corruption in the way crimes are investigated (Fisher, J. 2008 p 231).What Benefits are there in the use of DNA Evidence?The forensic science community finds DNA of great value because forensic scientists now have the ability to link biological evidence such as blood, semen, hair, or tissue to a single individual with confidence (Saferstein, 2011 p. 266).What improvements can be made in the use of DNA in Criminalistics?In an bowel movement to improve the crime-fighting potential of DNA profiling, the FBI initiated a pilot project called feature DNA index finger System (CODIS). The architectural plan would link data banks crossways the country housing reckonerized collections of DNA profiles of arrested felons. Investigators would be able to submit an unheard-of DNA profile for identification by activating one computer instead of running the evidence through dozens of statewide systems. An evidence submission that matches a DNA profile in one of the databases is called a hit, when such a computer match is made it is tantamount to solving the crime and proving who committed it. CODIS promised a crime-fighting potential equal to the FBIs Integrated robotic Fingerprint Identification System. Even better, the criminals caught by CODIS would be the worst of the worst- rapists, shaver molesters, and sexually motivated killers serial offenders all (Fi sher, 2008 pp. 231-2).The National DNA Index (NDIS) contains over 9,535,059 offender profiles and 366,762 forensic profiles as of March 2011. Ultimately, the success of the CODIS program get out be measured by the crimes it helps to solve. CODISs primary metric, the Investigation Aided, tracks the number of criminal investigations where CODIS has added value to the investigative process. As of March 2011, CODIS has produced over 141,000 hits assisting in more than 135,500 investigations (FBI)The United States is having a backlog handling all of the data being submitted to the forensic laboratories. There are two types (1) casework backlogs and (2) convicted offender and arrestee DNA backlogs (DNA.gov , n.d.).The demand for DNA testing is rise primarily because of increased sentiency of the potential for DNA evidence to help solve cases. The demand is approach from two primary sources (1) the increased amount of DNA evidence store in criminal cases and (2) the expanded effort to collect DNA samples from convicted felons and arrested persons. agree to a 2010 report from the National Instituted of Justice Until laboratories can meet the rising demand for DNA go and until their capacity to process samples is greater than the demand, backlogs will continue to exist and increase in proportion to the demand for services (Nelson, 2010). Crime laboratories are processing more cases than ever before, however expanded capacity to meet the increased demand (Nelson, 2010).What is in the future of DNA in society and what benefits will they bring to the criminalistics and forensic investigations?In the future, we will be able to determine the gloss of a persons hair and eye though a sample of DNA taken from blood, sperm, saliva or other biological materials relevant in forensic case work. Criminals can run, but they might be leaving some incriminating evidence behind. Scientists have figured out how to use DNA information to name a persons hair color. In the near f uture, DNA from blood, sperm or saliva samples being used to help track down an unheard-of perpetrator.Dutch researchers from Erasmus Medical Center and their collaborators in Poland have discovered 13 genetic markers in 11 genes that can be used to foresee hair color. The research was published in the journal Human Genetics, where scientists, championship they can forecast if a person has red hair or black hair with 90% accuracy. When it comes to predicting if a person has nordic or brown hair, the scientists claim to be 80% accurate. The scientists can also predict different shades of hair color, so people with dirty blond hair or other unusual colors can be tracked down too (Dickinson, B. 2011).The necessary DNA can be taken from blood, sperm, saliva or other biological materials relevant in forensic casework. Prof. Manfred Kayser, Chair of the Department of Forensic Molecular Biology at Erasmus MC, who led the study, stated, That we are now making it possible to predict dif ferent hair colors from DNA represents a major breakthrough as, so far, only red hair color (which is rare) could be estimated from DNA. For our research, we made use of the DNA and hair color information of hundreds of Europeans and investigated genes previously known to make up ones mind the differences in hair color. We identified 13 DNA markers from 11 genes that are informative to predict a persons hair color.Predictability Prof. Ate Kloosterman, of the Department of Human Biological Traces at the Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI) said This research lays the scientific basis for the development of a DNA test for hair color prediction. A validated DNA test system for hair color shall become available for forensic research in the not too distant future (Erasmus Medical Center 2011).This study might surface the way for yet another DNA test that would give forensic scientists more tools to crack unsolved mysteries. Predicting human phenotypes like a persons hair color would ce rtainly give crime fighters an edge Dickinson, B. 2011).DNA and its application to Criminalistics are changing the way evidence is pursued. The past decade has seen immense advances in this powerful criminal justice tool deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA can be used to identify criminals with incredible accuracy when biological evidence exists. Similarly, DNA evidence can be implemented to clear suspects and exonerate persons mistakenly accused or convicted of crimes. DNA technology is more and more vital to ensuring accuracy and fairness in the criminal justice system.We take for granted all the progress that has been made in the last few decades due to new breakthroughs in science. DNA has not only bear on science and medicine in our society but it also has affected the judicial system, and the way we conduct our criminal cases in the courts of the United States.

Trinidad and Tobago Electrical Regulations

Trinidad and Tobago electric RegulationsThe Trinidad and Tobago Electricity committee (TTEC) is responsible for the distribution and transmission of electrical verve around the country. The electrical antecedent comes from cardinal main power place which atomic subject 18 Port of Spain (308MW station, Point Lisas (634MW) station and Penal (236MW) station. It is through this arrangement the agency provides electrical power to its customers and quantifys this vigor in order to get hold revenue. However the governance is everywherely one of the most vulnerable move of that comp eachs infrastructure, as they argon prone to damage in a numberless(prenominal) of different scenarios. These reasons have ca utilise power companies such as TTEC to lay tear both(prenominal) of the strict standards, which we leave behind now be examined in detail. Since this taradiddle is concerned with industrial outfit administrations, mainly common chord- human body AC potential e ntrust be addressed. The energy that they issue is only single or three figure with frequency of 60 hertz.TRANSMISSION SYSTEMSCharacteristic of SupplyTTEC supplies energy with the following decl atomic number 18d voltages and characteristicsSingle conformation, 2 fit outs, one hundred fifteen volts employ for facility with loads up to a maximum of 30 amperes (A).Single physical body, 3 wire, and cxv/230 volts for in lineive reasoning with loads up to a maximum of deuce hundred amperes (A).Three phase, 4 wire, 115/230 volts from a delta- affiliated source for inst wholeations with combined light up and power loads up to a maximum demand of 199KVA. electric potential of 230 across phase wires, 115 amongst one after a nonher of two phase wires and hide outed neutral, and cc volts mingled with this third phase wire and neutral. (This third 200V phase wire essential be positively identified with the trick blue air throughout the founding or by whatever means of recognition is required by the codes in force.Three phase, 4 wire, 230/400 volts from a star affiliated source for facility with combined liberation and power loads up to a maximum of 350KVA.One of the following senior highschool voltages depending on the maximum demand of the load, location of the installation and the voltage unattached at the location put over lavishly voltage publish3 phase3 wire6.6KV3 phase3 or 4 wire12KV3 phase3 wire33KV3 phase3 wire66KV3 phase3 wire132KV*Accordingly the accusation should be consulted before the consumer makes plans for an installation to be supplied at high voltage.Consumers requiring supplies with utilization voltages other than the Commissions standard voltages as discussed above from (a) to (e) volition be supplied at one of the commissions high voltages decl atomic number 18d in (e) and are required to provide their own transformers. The Electricity Supply rules make to a lower place Section 15 of the Electricity (Inspection) Act Chapter 54.72 provides for variation of 6 pct above or below the declared voltages.As a solution a few guide rail capers are to be followed1. The post of communicate moldiness(prenominal)iness be near the face of a mental synthesis and at the commissions distribution pole.2. When the sequester voltage supply is available, the superman of supply for an installation supplied at 115/230 or 230/400 volts, mustiness be at the Commissions distribution pole3. If a transformer must be installed to supply the 115/230 or 230/400 volt then the transformer has to be the extremum of supply.4. The point of supply for a consumers installation supplied which is at high voltage provide each be the consumers end points which is connects to the supporter get out or the terminal of the commissions disconnecting means.Provided that the consumer has consulted the commission to determine the location of the point of supply (the point at which TTEC supplies energy) for the new-fashion ed installation, the commission shall provide only one military divine military utility line to supply a structure. The service lines are either electrical theatre getors through which energy whitethorn be supplied or is intended to be a supplied by the commission. These music directors are runs from the distribution main or forthwith from the premises of the Commission. check over figure below.Fig. 1 Typical Overhead Service Line with Consumers penetration business line on Consumers buildingFigure typical overhead service line with consumers arrest line of work on private pole pose OF SERVICE LINEThe position of the weather- head or gland at the point of enthral must be dictated at a lower limit distance of 15cm away from the bash board and non in the direct path of water flow from rooftops and guttering.It must be tincture also that the Commission only provides one service line to supply a building.The customers point of entrance must non be fixed directly abo ve a building extension or dissolve roof.The minimum meridian to which the overhead service conductors are to be committed are 3.7 metres above the terminate grade level, or for a great height it is requirement to maintain it at a minimum height of 6.1 metres for clearance of the Commissions over head service line over roads. each industrial installation shall be competently controlled by a manually operable, physically and electrically separated integrated main switch or circle circle surf. This disconnecting means shall be readily accessible to authorized or qualified personnel, properly identified and sort of located near to the service conductors as realizable.Conductors and blood linesService Entrance Conductors are the portion of the installation amongst the point of entrance and the consumers main disconnecting device. This generally means it is the customer lineage to which T TEC connects to give supply from the service line. The service line is attached to the dispersal main.TTEC service connects only to a single consumers entrance cable at the point of supply to a building. The overhead line service conductors must be connected at a minimum height of 3.7 molaritys above finished grade level. For height that is greater it is necessary maintain a minimum height of 6.1 clips for clearance of the service line over roads. The entrance cables to the point of supply shall be in either rigid golden conduit treated against corrosion or other clear non-corrosive enclosures or shall be concentric or tamper-proof cable form the consumers terminals to the criterioning equipment and should preferably continue to the consumers main switch. If conduit is utilize, only standard conduit elbows and fittings to facilitate pulling of the cables should be allowed. An approve weather head is required at the consumers terminals at the point of supply and a minimum of 0.5 criterions of cable must be go away for partnership to the Commissions overh ead service line. Attachment to the commissions conductors shall be make a point no less than 0.3 meters form the weather head. The consumer must also provide and install terminating lugs for connecting to cables with conductor sizings larger than 95mm2. For immunity entrance cables, it is best-loved that for 115/230V and 230/400V installations, the Consumers terminals at the point of supply be located at a pole furnished and maintained by the consumer.Size of Conductors Conduits And CablesThe surface of an entrance cable for a building with two or to a greater extent metered installations supplied at 115/230 or 230/400 volts shall not be less than 16 sq. mm. This cable size is for copper conductors with rubber, polythene or P.V.C. insulation. other(a) authorise cables rump be utilize with equivalent afoot(predicate) carrying capacities.The size of every conductor shall be such that its certain military rank, is necessary, of grade factors appropriate to the type of cable s and the conditions of installation, is not less than the maximum sustained accepted which testament popularly flow through it. Also the size of the conductor shall be that the voltage drop from the consumers terminals to any point in the installation does not exceed 2.5% of the declared nominal voltage when the conductors are carrying the maximum live low their normal conditions of service.Single core cables armoured with steel wire shall not be used for carrying alternating currentMINIMUM creation BENDING RADIUSDuring installation, PVC ar mored cables should not be circle to a smaller radius than six propagation the overall diameter for cables having circular conductors and eight times for other armored cables. Every cable termination shall be accessible for inspection and shall be mechanically and electrically sound. The insulation tape or braid shall be removed no further than is necessary.PROTECTION OF CABLESConductors of cables shall be insulated with the correct clas s of insulation in accordance with the appropriate standard to withstand a voltage not less than the highest sustained voltage to which they are likely to be subjected. both insulation damaged by soldering otherwise shall be trail away and replaced by suitable insulation at least(prenominal) as thick effective as the original installation. Termination of cables should not be in locations where flammable and/or explosive dust, liquid, vapor or grease-gun is likely to be present. Otherwise the termination shall be enclosed in a flameproof fitting. For paper or varnished-cambric-insulated, coat-sheathed cable, a wiped metallic element limb or joint cuff, filled with insulating compound shall be provided.Laying of cables under kingdomCables under fuse must be 18 deep inhumed in red sand (sand bed) surrounded by concrete slabs then cover with red danger tape over the slabs. If the cable is passing under a roadway, the cable must be a concrete duct and must be inspected before bei ng buried.Positioning of transformer and switchgearAll service equipment which include transformers, panels, switch gear etc, must have a working space of 3 feet around them, they must be positioned where they are considerably accessible to the authority, in an upfront foremost position away from unglamourous travel, if it is pedestrian travel place billards around them to disallow people from crashing into them.MeteringMetering flowerpot be accomplished through socket type metering or three phase metering, the later being more expensive. menses slip0 200Single phase200Three phase wiring200-500Current transformer metering500High voltage meteringGenerally, a single meter is used to measures all electrical energy supplied at that single location. It records the number of units (kilowatt hours) of electricity you have used and is quite easy to read, and consumption records are simple to keep. The Trinidad and Tobago Electricity Commission uses the recorded electricity usage to ac curately calculate the consumer electrical bill. The three types of meter normally use are the digital, the Dial and the AMI meters. The service entrance cable is connected to the meter. If a rail-divider box is to be used first rail-splitter box then the meter .If no splitter box is used, then connect only to the meter. Splitter arrangements can also be used to split the load.In metering in that location are a few regulations that must be followed in connexion, positioning and reading. They are as followedFor an indoor-type meter, the consumer shall provide a meter-board for mounting the meter. This board shall be of an approved size, and shall be made from 19mm hard-wood stock, free from knots set plumb, and level and securely fastened for impregnable supportsIn order to make meters more accessible, the tops of the meters should not be greater than 1.8m or less than 1.5m above bedeck or finished grade level. A clear space of at least 0.9m in front of all meters must be avail able at all times.Meters should not be located over doorways, along stairways or directly under water pipes or drain pipes. They should also be mount free from shock, vibrations and mechanical injury.Meter sockets should be installed on an outer argue of the building. In a building elevated more than 2.4m above ground, the meter should be located on one of the supporting columns of the building.Meters for a multi-level building shall be grouped in one location on either the basement or ground cut down in an accessible location. Where there are greater than 6-metered installations, groups of at least 6 meters can be installed on the basement, ground floor, or an accessible upper floor.Outdoor socket-type meters shall be installed for single phase 115/230V installations up to a maximum of 200A meter sockets of the ring less type can be used, but must be provided with an approved means for sealing the cover.Outdoor socket-type meters shall be installed for three-phase 115/230V and 23 0/400V. foundations with loads up to 200A per phase. Whole current or self-contained socket-type meters shall meter such installationsFor 201-500A loads per phase, current transformers shall be used. The commission shall install a current transformer cabinet, meter-board and meter cabinet where necessary. The meter cabinet shall have a minimum depth of 25.4cm. Between the current transformer cabinet and the meter board, a 20mm conduit containing three (3) 1.5mm2 red, white and blue, and four (4) 2.5mm2 red, white, blue and black 600V insulated conductors must be provided by the consumer. The conductors should be a maximum 15m in length. Lengths of at least 0.9m must be provided outside(a) the two ends of the conduit to permit the external connections to the meter and current transformer.Three-phase, 115/230V and 230/400V installations requiring loads in excess of 500A per phase shall be supplied and metered at high voltage. The metering unit shall be installed on a Distribution Po le or in the consumers transformer substation subject to the conditions of the supply.Fig. 4 Typical facility Single Metered Low Voltage SupplyFigure Single meter high voltage supplyCIRCUIT BREAKERSA hitch breaker is a device for closing and interrupting a move between separable contacts under both normal and abnormal conditions, with natural selection establish on the type of application being either alternating current (ac) or direct current (dc). The established voltage rating of a circuit breaker is based on its clearance or space, between electrical circuits and between electrical components and the ground. circuit breaker voltage ratings fate the maximum electrical system voltage on which they can be applied. round breakers voltage must be equal to or greater than voltage of the electrical system on which they are used. travel breakers have two types of current ratings continuous current rating and fault current-interrupting capacity.Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) ty pes are common in domestic, commercial-grade and industrial application, includeMCB (Miniature circumference surf)-rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. breaker illustrated above are in this category.MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)-rated current up to 1000 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in LV switchboards or switchgear cabinets.Positioning of circuit breakerA circuit breaker in a wet location or outside a building must be enclosed in a weatherproof enclosure. This enclosure must be so equipped as to prevent moisture and water from entering and accumulating within the cabinet.Circuit breakers must be mounted so that there is at least 6.35mmm of airspace between the enclosure and the wall or the supporting surface, with elisions being metallic cabinets and cut-out boxes whi ch may be installed without the airspace on a concrete, masonry, tile or similar surface.All circuit breakers should be installed at least 2m above the floor or working platform.FuseA mix in is placed in an electrical current circuit so that when current flow exceeds the rating of the fuse it blows or blows out. The elements in the fuse melt, break the circuit and preventing other components of the circuit from being damaged by the over current. The size of the metal fuse element determines the rating. Once a fuse blows it must be replaced by a new one.Standards for the Use of Circuit ledgeman and FusesThe minimum sizes of main switches or circuit breakers permitted on consumers installation are as followsCharacteristic of supplyMinimum Current rating115 volts, 2 wire, 1phase30 amperes115/230 volts, 3 wire, 1 phase60 amperes115/230 volts, 4 wire, 3 phase60 amperes115/400 volts, 4 wire, 3 phase60 amperesTable circuit breaker sizesThe consumer shall furnish and install a high volt age circuit breaker at the primary disconnecting means for an installation with a maximum demand in excess of 800 KVA.In a building with more than one separately metered Consumers Installation a metal splitter box with a suitably sized Circuit Breaker for each Installation shall be installed between the Consumers Entrance Cable and the meter sockets by the Consumer/s or Landlord. Provision shall be mode on the splitter box for the Commission to apply its seals or locks. to each one Circuit Breaker In the splitter box shall be suitably identified with the Consumers Installation connected to it.Where there are seven or more separately metered Consumers Installations in a building, a main disconnecting means or Circuit Breaker shall be installed between the Consumers Entrance Cables and the group of Circuit Breakers In the splitter box by the Consumers or Landlord. Provision shall be made for the sealing or locking of this switch or breaker by the Commission.Consumer shall furnish and install a high voltage Circuit Breaker as the primary disconnecting means for an Installation with a maximum demand in excess of 800 KVA. The Consumer should conform with the Commissions Specification with respect to the rating and rupturing capacity of the Circuit Breaker. The limits of the Consumers protection circumstance shall be stipulated by the Commission to ensure discrimination with the protection of the Commissions system.It is recommended that the Consumer maintain an adequate supply of chuck up the sponge per centums for the normal maintenance of his circuit breaker and ancillary apparatus.The selection of the type of circuit breaker most suitable for protection of a DC installation depends mainly on the following criteriaThe current, which determines the rating of the equipmentThe rated voltage, which determines the number of poles in series necessary for breakingThe maximum short-circuit current at the point of installation, which determines the breaking capacityTh e type of network.It is recommended that the consumer maintain an adequate supply of spare parts for the normal maintenance of his circuit breaker and ancillary apparatusBRANCH CIRCUITRYA branch circuit is delineate as that part of an electric circuit extending beyond the last circuit breaker or fuse. The branch circuits start at the breaker box and extend to the electrical devices connected to the service. Branch circuits are the last part of the circuit supplying electrical devices. These circuits are classified in two different ways, concord to the type of loads they serve or according to their current-carrying capacity. laborsThe table below show the supplies required for motors with different power rating.Motor power rating /wattsSupply750 and below115/230, single phaseBetween 750 and 5.6K230, single or 3 phase5.6K and over230/400, 3 phaseFor single-phase motors rated between 3.75 Kilowatts and 5.6 Kilowatts it should be arranged for no load starting. Motors of over 5.6 kilow atts must be arranged for reduced voltage starting. The commission will be prepared to consider direct online starting of motors of these sizes where the supply to the consumers installation is at high voltage. Any apparatus having power rating larger than 2.5 KVA can be supplied at either 115/230, single phase. utensil greater than 2.5KVA up to and including 15 KVA in size can be supplied at 230 volts, single phase. Any rating larger than 15 KVA in size can only be supplied from a three-phase supply. Single-phase appliances and motors supplied from a 3 or 4 wire installations shall be so connected that the in operation(p) current unbalanced would be a minimum. Three phase motors should be protected against single phasing conditions. When the rotor of the motor is locked, the motor requires the highest current. Direct online starters can be used also, if current goes and comes.PlugsPlugs in most residential and commercial establishments do not exceed 150V between conductors on bra nch circuits. That is, they are normally rated at 15-20A with exception to a 240V circuits.LightingLighting circuits usually do not exceed 150 watts to ground. These circuits are usually rated at 15 amperes or less in most homes and commercial establishments callable to the fact that at some time during the use of the device the consumer may see the need to replace the fixture.Qualify personnel only should service the sacking fixtures. When installing for industrial purposes the voltage to the ground on the lighting circuit could be as much as 330V. With these conditions incandescent fixtures must be mounted 8 feet or more above the floor or at the available height. Where conditions do not permit 8 feet, then the fixtures should not be readily accessible (i.e. they should be encased, etc). much(prenominal) a supply would be provided by a 3-phase, 4-wire 277/480V wire system.For unrestricted and commercials areas the voltage should not exceed 300V to the ground. Trinidad and Toba go wiring code law states that no final circuit should provide more than 15 lighting fixtures.Type of receptacleMaximum Number of OutletsMaximum Branch Rating (Amps)Maximum Cable Cross-section (mm2)RemarksDOMESTICSocket outlet other than kitchen or laundry6202.515 A duplex houseKitchen2202.515 A DuplexLaundry1202.520 A DuplexAir condition1202.515 A, 230V DuplexINDUSTRIALLighting6 x 115V8 x 115V15201.52.5200VA per outletReceptable outlets3451520301.52.54.0500VA per outletGROUNDINGGrounding is one of the most burning(prenominal) factors involving electrical wiring, it provides safety to personnel, equipment and safety.Standards for Groundingi) All wiring installations shall include a consumers earth terminal or the equivalent to which the following shall be connected by an earth-continuity conductorAll metal work associated with the wiring system including cable sheets, armor, conduits, ducts, and boxes. open metal of apparatus land terminals of socket-outletsOne point of the second ary twisting and of the metal work of any transformer used in the installation, except where the transformer is contained in apparatusii) The connection to the earth electrode or any other means of hide shall be readily accessible and thoroughly made by use of soldered joints or substantial clamps of non-ferrous material and where connection is made to a metal pipe of external diameter not exceeding 100mm, clamps of an approval type shall be used.iii) The earthing lead shall be connected to the line side of the consumers main disconnecting means, to an effective earth electrode buried in the ground, for example a metal water pipe system having metal to metal joints or to a copper strip or rod. Connection to a water pipe shall be made as near as practicable to the point of entry onto the ground. Gas holler or non-metallic water piping shall not be used. Metal frames or portable, stationary and fixed electric appliances operating on circuits above 50 volts to ground shall be earth ed in an approved manner. Metal fixtures and lighting equipment installed on outlets wired with grounded multicore cable, with metal raceway, grounded metal-clad cable, non-metallic sheathed cable on circuits operating at more than 50 volts to ground shall be earthed.iv) Socket-outlets and cord connectors equipped with institution contacts shall have those contacts effectively earthed. The branch circuits or branch circuit wiring shall include or provide a instauration conductor to which the earthing contacts with the receptacle or cord connector shall be connected. The armour of the metal-clad cable or a metallic raceway is acceptable as a ground connector. Equipment shall be considered as grounded where mechanically connected in a ageless and effective manner to metal raceway, the armour of the meta-clad cable, the grounding conductor in a non-metallic or to a separate grounding conductor not smaller than 2.5mm2, provided that the raceway or grounding conductor is itself ground ed in an approved manner.v) The earthing arrangements of the consumer installation shall be such that on the occurrence of a fault of negligible impedance from a phase or non-earthed conductor to adjacent exposed metal, a current corresponding to 3 times the rating of the fuse, or one and a half times the setting of the over-load circuit-breaker can flow, so that the faulty circuit can be made dead. Alternatively and in every instance where this requirement cannot be met, an earth-leakage circuit breaker shall be installed. A voltage-operated earth-leakage circuit breaker shall be connected between the consumer earth terminal and a suitable earth electrode. The connection between the earth terminal operating coil and earth electrode shall be insulated.Grounding of buildings and equipmentIt is standard for all wiring installations to have an earth terminal or grounding electrode.The earth terminal must be connected in the appropriate manner to the circuitry of the installation by mea ns of the earth continuity conductor or the grounding electrode conductor.Where there is a transformer outside of the building there must also be an additional ground connection from the grounded service conductor to a grounding electrode, either at the transformer or elsewhere outside the building. A grounding connection must not be made however, at the load side of the service disconnecting means.Where an installation consists of multiple buildings, a grounding conductor must be made at each building.All the socket outlets and cord connectors in an installation equipped with grounding contacts must have them effectively earthed.The branch circuits or branch wiring must include a grounding conductor to which the earthing contacts shall be connected.As a standard all metal fixtures and lighting equipment installed on outlets wired with grounded multi-core cable, metal raceway, grounded multi-clad cable and non-metallic sheathed cable on circuits operating at more than 50 volts to gr ound must be earthed.In turn equipment are considered grounded if they are mechanically connected in a permanent and effective manner to a metal raceway (the armour of a metal-clad cable), the grounding conductor in a non-metallic sheath or to a separate grounding conductor not smaller than 2.5mm2, provided that the raceway is itself earthed in an appropriate manner.Switch plates, wiring boxes, conduit, cabinets, and lightsTypes of equipment that should be groundedAll metal work associated with the wiring system including cable sheets, armour, conduit, ducts and boxesExposed metal apparatusEarth terminals of socket-outletsOne point of the secondary winding and of the metal work of any transformer used in the installation with the exception of transformers contained in apparatus.Electric motor framesEquipment needs to be grounded under any of these circumstancesThe equipment is within 8 feet vertically and 5 feet horizontally of the floor or walking surface.The equipment is within 8 feet vertically and 5 feet horizontally of grounded metal objects you could touch.The equipment is located in a wet or smother area and is not isolated.The equipment is connected to a power supply by cord and plug and is not double-insulated.Types of earth electrodesEarth matsEarth mats typically resemble a wire mesh. They are used where there are high voltages, and several cables carrying those high voltages (such as in industrial areas). Each of the multiple cables is grounded to the earth mat rather than connecting all these cables to one grounding electrode. They are used mainly in substations and can be placed above or below ground. Earth plates are used to accomplish an effective earth in shallow soils with underlying rocks or in locations with large amounts of buried services. They can also provide protection at potentially dangerous places e.g. HV switching positions.Copper Earth RodsCopper rods of 20mm or 25mm diameter are used where there are high-resistance earth condit ions. It is possible to obtain copper rods with end-on connections where a length may be control in, the removable hard-steel tip unscrewed, and a further length of rod screwed on. Earth rods take advantage of lower resistivity soils at greater depths than normal excavation will allow. Quality earth rods are commonly made from either solid copper, stainless steel or copper bonded steel.http//tbn1.google.com/images?q=tbnIODNxco1mtW8xMhttp//www.rcoombs.co.uk/earthstake.jpg1 spunkMain types of lighting fixtures used in workshopsTubular Fluorescent LampsThe high efficiency and relative luminous intensity of such types of lamps results in their grand use in many workshops. However, fluorescent lamps are highly contrary for the lighting of areas containing moving or rotating machinery. The lamps can cause a strobe effect that makes it difficult to observe the movement of the machine and, in some cases, the machine may appear to be stationary.Color Corrected atomic number 80 LampsThese lamps, when used in conjunction with external reflectors are extensively used in industrial lighting, both inside the building and outside.Incandescent strand LampsThe small filament size allows close optical control for directive and local lighting.Glare Reduction-Glare occurs when a light source is seen directly, or by reflection, and is too bright when compared with the general brightness of the rest of the interior. The color of light used in a building should be elect so as to prevent excessive glare. There are two types of glare, viz. disability glare (which impairs vision) and discomfort glare (which causes visual discomfort). Lamps of liaise or warm colors should be used for general lighting in order to prevent or minimize glare.Reducing the brightness of the source causing the glare or changing the relative positions of the commentator and the source can also reduce glare. Lamps should be shielded from direct sight by louvers or reflectors. Also, diffusing ceilings ma y be used in order to spread the light over a wider are

Project and innovation management

fuddle and innovation oversight expulsion And Innovation Management With An It FocusAbstractTodays engineering science has foc utilized on the dispositions of sight, sound and touch. To enhance the sensibility of applied science we hand over introduced our innovative exteriorize Digital olfactive System. This is the bea of virtual originality which overly withstand rattling vast applications e.g. entertainment (games, movies etc), Internet and e-commerce. On favored death penalty of this technology a videogame player or a beauty watching movie could feel the perfume of the scenes of the game or movie. And an online emptor would be able to expression harvest-tides online in the first place buying them.Concept coevals And SelectionThis chapter defends a brief introduction of our innovation and sets how it impart bring a change in the world of e-commerce and virtual reality and deed over competitive advantage to our comp each in the commercialise.Introduction Every clement being is granted with five brains i.e. sight, sound, shade, taste and touch. Our beak is the superstar that has much relegated in our sensitive surroundings. The sense of nip brings us into harmony with nature. It warns us of dangers and sharpens our aw atomic number 18ness of opposite people, places and things. It helps us to respond the people we meet, contri ande fascinate our mood. Our nose several(prenominal)(prenominal) in allows us to gull sense place of olfactive sensations ab discover(predicate) whats commission bulge out on in the world around us. Right on the ceiling of the nasal cavity is the ol fixingsy epithelium, contains special receptors which be sensitive to scent molecules that travel through the air. These receptors atomic number 18 microscopic and on that point are at most 10 million of them in human nose.By the quantify all the technology in the world has worked mostly on survey and the voice, similarly sufficient w ork has been d matchless in technology to sense touch. We found that very hardly a(prenominal)er efforts are done to approach the sense of fume. So far, ready reckoners today apprise work with still 3 out of 5 senses.Innovation DescriptionScent is one of the most engaging phenomena of flavor. Use of the scent in milieu has become an issue in society. Most companies today want to commercialize their point of intersections though direct selling, though which at that place is a desire to drive home an advertising major power which appeals to all five senses.To detect odours of dissimilar things we bind the ability to smell. We have a special portion in our brain called olfactory Lobe which senses smell. Human could wholly smell seven sanctioned odours and their combination it is similar alike(p) 4 basic colours make all the colours. Smell has a nifty impact on how we perceive our surroundings or a crude thing. It is the sense of human being which never turns off a s a person smells with each of his breath and an adult person breath as often as 20,000 beats a day. There are about 400000 dissimilar odours in the world, as human we can distinguish 10,000 distinguishable smells.Our aim is to develop a digital arrangement of rules which have the ability sense, arrogate and reproduce the most common smells. The sense of smell is most related to memory and emotion which makes odour a powerful way to reinforce ideas. harvest- fourth dimension DescriptionDigital Olfactory System pass on be a combination of both ironware and packet. The ironware exit capture and rectify the smell period software evaluate the smell equation (e-smell equation) and generate bits (electrical signal) for a specific type of smell and at last the smell entrust be regenerated on the separate receiving end. The hardware of the carcass forget be comprised of two parts, i.e. one to smell the smell and recent(prenominal) is to regenerate the smell. The wren ch pull up stakes be affiliated with a calculator outline. The software part of this system allow for be a craft driver for this fraud which depart analyse the sniffed smell and generate a digital equation to reproduce a specific odour. The software allow withal be able to convert the smell in to digital signals and disperse on the web.The coded odour would be downloadable to the estimator like images and sound files. Users entrust be able to modify, regenerate their own smells and post on internet. This technology go out be able to produce scented emails, scented websites. In future it could as well be viable that these devices play a life-sustaining role in our life like in movie theatre, TV and internet etc.Our harvest-festival showament not exclusively be sold as a separate peripheral device for computer provided it get out as well be incorporated in orchard apple tree laptops, digital cams and cell phones.Implementing The IdeaAs discussed earlier that D igital Olfactory System allow be a combination of both hardware and software. The hardware of the system depart be comprised of two parts, i.e. one to sniff the smell and other is to regenerate the smell. To capture smell a device like smell detector could be used. As discussed above that there are seven basic smells which are minty, floral, ethereal, musky, resinous, foul, and acrid. These basic smells combine together to make 400000 smells in the world.PrototypeThe device to sniff odour have the special circuitry to detect each of the individual smell from a sniffed smell and pass its signals to the device driver which have the construct-in capability to lead the equation of the sniffed aroma on the basis of the intensity of each basic smell. While on the regenerating side this scent allow for be reproduces by reversing the e-smell equation. The smell reproducing device give have the cartridge change with seven basic scents. The device driver software forget range the e- smell equation to the micro controller of the smell generator. The microcontroller will than mix the assign quantity (as per equation) of each of the basic smell to reproduce the sniffed smell.Applications of Digital Olfactory SystemDigital olfactory system aims to compose the hardware for comprehend device (recording the smell), storing the smell (in the shape of digital signals) and regenerating device to regenerate the smell as output. It develops the software and the hardware for the entire touch on. Digital olfactory system would with a driver package that could be installed on any(prenominal)(prenominal) computer to make the system compatible with the computer. The idea is to make all these devices function independently ,which means that the regenerating device can be installed independently on any computer and can act as a receiver which has its own advantages especially in future when the laptops , computers and televisions could be manufacture with built in digital olfactory receiver system. similarly by manufacturing the receiver or the smell sensor separately, it can be used in digital cameras as an renderitional feature and the pictures can pose a real succession feel if viewed on a television or a computer with a regenerator that is built in or attached as a peripheral device. The regenerators could in like manner be functioned as just generators that can be used as room fresheners for big rooms and car fresheners for cars.There could be some applications for digital scent such asCameras furnish with digital scent technology can capture image as well as smellSend scented email (how romantic)Watch scented DVDs prank scented video games Try a perfume from a crossways website wherefore We Want To Do This?There could be many applications of our increase but the four basic types of applications that Digital Olfactory System seems a logical system fit for at the moment. merchandiseingEntertainmentEducationMedical company Structure And Market Research PhaseIn this chapter we have discussed our telephone circuit baffle and defined that how the internal and external factor can regard the market.Our overlap Digital Olfactory SystemAs we have discussed our harvesting in detail in previous sections as far as convention and application of our crossway is concerned it will be a small device with inbuilt smell sniffer and smell synthesiser connected with a computer or some other equipment like digital camera, gaming console, TV, Digital put upor etc. Our technology will make it contingent to send scented emails. This crossing will be sold as peripheral device for computer and it will withal be integrated in laptops, digital cameras and cell phones.Our VisionOur vision is to enhance the take in of viewing by making it livelier and giving it a feel of real time experience, through this innovation we could also to some extend switch over the use of natural sugariness by using artificial perfumes ,this coul d also boost the advertisement companies for making advertisement with smell sensors ,this would mother out a clear idea of their return ,especially in industries in perfumes ,deodorants business sector and much so in food industries .It could attract more customers ,which is what any company recalls to do through any advertisement. This innovation can be used for security purpose as well a more sensitive smell sensor could as a bomb sensor which could be of mettlesome to help locating and diffusing a bomb. By manufacturing dedicated smell regenerators the use of artificial flowers could be increased because the besides thing missing in todays artificial flowers do of plastic or synthetic fibre is fragrance and by adding fragrance to them the experience though arterial could be felt as very real and natural. The orbit of this intersection point is wide and the demand would entirely increase with the technological promotional material in various sectors of IT and non IT s ectors.Business simulation(Source, Hedman and Kaling (2002), IT and Business modellings, Pg 113)As seen in the business model the important factors effecting a business are, Suppliers, resources, Activities and organization, the backdrop of management ,the straitings and the market/industry that has the competitors and the customers.As we intend to manufacture the digital olfactory system, there can be a company that is dedicated to manufacture the digital olfactory systems or it can be used by various companies in various industries who could manufacture customized digital olfactory system. We will try to relate the components of business model with the companies who might use it as a customized additional feature in their already existing fruits, we would like the digital camera industry order to use the digital olfactory system technology for recording the real time smell or fragrance by introducing a build in smell sensor in their cameras, and we would like apple to use th e digital olfactory system technology for regenerating the real time smell or fragrance by introducing a build in smell regenerator in their laptops and computers. We would justify the business model and the components of the business model of these two companies relating with the addition of this smart feature in their product.According to Barneys Resource Based View (Hedman and Kalling, 2002) the Activities are performed by a business to use the companies resources, offerings are the products and the services the unbendable has to offer through their sales. If a firm utilizes its resources in the best possible manner therefore invariable they will have more to offer to the customers.The camera company regulation and the laptop company Apple could use their resources to built this technology and use it for their product which would improve on what they have to offer to their customers, if they be the send-off ones to come up with this feature then their competitors like Nikon , Sony and other in camera industry and dell, hp and other in computer industry would lack this competitive advantage, hence this would give Canon and apple a clear edge over their competitors. out-of-door Context It is important to analyze the external environment for any product of a company as it has a lot of forces acting on it that it has to deal with to be undefeated in the market.Market SegmentsSince we choose to add the feature of a smell sensor in the cameras of Canon and a smell regenerator in the laptops and desktops of Apple, we will focus on the camera and computer manufacturing companies and the market pertaining to it. We would describe further how this added feature can give stem and Apple a competitive advantage over their competitors and give more value for the product to their customers. The product will also face the forces in the external market like the suppliers, buyers substitutes, potential entrants and competitors which are the porters five forces we wil l discuss how and what extent these forces tries to hamper the success of this product.Competitors Some of the competitors of Cannon are Nikon, Sony, Samsung, Sony Ericson and others while the competitors of Apple are other computer manufactures like Dell, Hp, IBM and others, if Canon and Apple come up with the additional feature of digital olfactory system in their product it will surely give them a competitive advantage over their other competitors as it would be first of its cast of a product launched in the market.BuyersBuyers are the customers of the product, the buyers of this sunrise(prenominal) product from Canon would be worldwide, and this could attract all the age groups that are kindle in photography and also the professional photographers. While the customers of Apple who are already impressed by Apples innovative products would want to buy this product which would increase their sales and hence increase their profit.Potential Entrant Since it will be a product which will be first of its kind the threat from a new entrant will be less(prenominal) at least in the initial formats of the product life afterwards the launch.SuppliersThe suppliers of this additional feature could be the highly eminent staffs that work in RD department of Apple and Canon. The product will be developed by renowned computer, digital cam and cell phone manufacturing companies like Samsung, Sony Ericson, Canon and Apple. The companies already have their suppliers. Although this is a totally new idea the companies might have to use their own resources to develop specialised hardware like sniffer and smell regenerator.SubstitutesThreats from the substitute can be assumed to be low as this being an innovative product it will surely take time for other companies to come up with the same technology. inherent Context Internal context can be seen through following factorsRelated Product LineThe intention is to add an additional feature, the Digital olfactory system in cameras and computers, that is the smell sensor in Canon cameras and smell regenerator in Apple computers.Factors Affecting Product educationSome of the possible factors poignant product growth are Market inquiry and knowledge, risk management, coordination.Market ResearchIt is important that the company is aware of the public demand, as in conclusion its the buyers that make the market for a product so there can be a interrogation carried out for a product that we intend to launch. It can be done by the research teams of Apple and Cannon. essay Management The project managers of Cannon and Apple will have to computer programme a risk management political program for the proper running of this new project, with innovation comes a lot of risk, since its a completely new technology there will be no references useable to work out a plan so it is up to the project managers to make a plan and decide how to move along in this innovative project. familiarity Management Knowledge management is not very easy to define precisely and simply. According to Brian (Bo) Newman, 1991 Knowledge Management is the accumulation of processes that govern the creation, dissemination, and recitation of knowledge. Our project is a complex project which not only involves an innovative hardware and software to make it. There are different people from different fields (e.g. electronic engineers, microchip programmers, system developers etc) have to work on this project. To make every detail of the project available to each member of the development team there should be a common (shared) repository and informationbase to manage the knowledge carefully. (Bessant Tidd, p 194).CoordinationThe success of any depends on how well it has been coordinated, in this case it is even so accepted because there will have to be wide-cut coordination between the different sectors and set of engineers operative in the company to make the project successful. eccentric Assurancecalibre is intangible a nd is often considered unimportant in development. Quality assurance is a planned and systematic set of several activities utilize in a system to verify that quality contractments for a product or service will be fulfilledCostIt is one of the major factors of product development. Our idea includes lots of research and development both in hardware and software. For this project initial estimate is about 6 million Krons. A small enumerate of about 5 to 10% of the total cost will be reserved in billet of the unpredictable costs.Market ResearchMarket Research is a collection and analysis of info about a particular product in a channelise market it also performs the analysis of the competition and environment of the market. It allows the companies to learn more about past, current and potential customers, including their specific likes and dislikes. The data can be collected either from primary research or secondary research. The aim of the market research is to get more cause ab out a product to launch it in the market or to analyses the consumption of a product in the market and for many other different purposes. This research could be qualitative or quantitative.Market interactionAs we are going to introduce a digital nose and named it Digital Olfactory System. It is a totally new idea. We are intended to include our digital olfactory system in computers, digital cameras and cell phones.Apple computers are popular for its mac computers similarly Sony and Canon are renowned for their digital cameras and throughout the world. These companies will include our system in their products as an additional feature and introduce these products worldwide. So the users of Mac based computers, digital cam and cell phone users (of the whole world) who want to capture scent and enjoy it while playing movies and games, retrieving pictures, would be our target customers.To research on market interaction we have to use 4P model to understand the market in the context of product, price, promotion and placement.Product Apple computers, Sony and Canons digital cams and Sony Ericsson are very famous in the whole world for darling quality of their products. Including the new feature in their system will give them a competitive advantage in the market and boost their profit. terms Average prices of products Apple, Canon, Sony, Samsung and Sony Ericson are quite high and demand of their products is also very high. Addition of a completely new feature in their products will increase the products price up to 30 to 50%. But the high demand of the products in market justifies the higher price to some extent. promotional material before the launch of product there would be promotional campaigns of the product line which include a stunningly new feature of spying and regenerating scene in digital format. For these campaigns all the communication take and media will be used. All of our companies mentioned above already have their bulls eye names worldwide. Customers satisfaction (word of mouth) on the product line of these companies would also be helpful in product promotion.Placement The product line equipped with new feature will be placed at kelvin of sales points spanned over the world, of Apple, Sony, Canon, Samsung, and Sony Ericson.Implementation PhaseThis chapter gives a brief overview of fulfilation phase of our product. We will see how the team will be organised, what are the responsibilities of each team member time and cost factors will be calculated. And finally the successful launch of the product.Product Innovations And Development Process To implement our innovation project stage gate model will be used. Below is granted the detailed description of the modelInitial concealing At initial Screen Two Criteria ar Defined Which AreMust meetShould meetMust meet criteria would define the standards which will mandatory for the project in order to move to the next stage. It will define the prerequisites (the minimum requir ements) for each stage.Should meet will be some extra requirements, which will not be necessary to fulfil but they will add more value to the product if met.After analysing the must meet and should meet criteria a feasibility report will be prepared by the Financial Analyst to check that both criteria are fulfilled.Preliminary Assessment it is the 1st stage at which the project is accessed on the basis of market research in which the scope of the project is assessed and success factors are calculated. We are confident that no other company is working on this new idea. The customers requirements and demands will be found out during market research and we will try to implement the final purport of our product according to the requirements of the customers. Funding of the project will be started and total time required for the completion of project will be analysed at this stage. luxuriant investigation will be done focusing on the scope and cost of the project. Analysis will be mad e prior to the product development and must meet and should meet criteria will be made sure. Innovative idea will be reviewed finally.Post-Implementation Analysis product work will be analysed by calculating the profit earned through its sale in the market. Required improvements in marketing plans and products performance will be made in the light of the results gained.Product Development Model roll ModelThe product could be developed using the Spiral development model as shown belowSpiral model gives an additive approach towards the development of any system. It is also used if the risk factor is quite high in development process. As our idea is new and it requires lots of research and development. Spiral model gives an opportunity to reconsider the product design and development at several different stages.Requirement dress The requirement stage is the first stage where all the information about the requirements of the project is collected efficiently by the research team or a dedicated team chosen for the project and then the data is delivered for the next stage.System DesignThis stage has the scheming of the product, a design of product is necessary before the implementation of the product the design is built based on the information from the requirement stage.Implementation And CodingThe software code will be written at this stage and hardware will be produced on test level. This stage sees the implementation of the design created for the product, this is one of the most crucial stages as the risk management plan has a dedicated time and budget to get the product manufactured and everything has to be done as planed of foreseen for the product to be successful. examinationing And validationAfter the product is manufactured it has to be verified and tested before it could go into production stage at commercial level, verification stage allows the glitches if any in the product (either in hardware or software) to be fixed through a feed back to the impl ementation stage. This has to repeat till the product is as per desire. This all be done guardianship in mind the time constraint. As the longer it takes the more time it gives to the competitors.Commercial ProductionOnce the product is verified and passed as okeh to be manufactured then it hits the production stage where it is manufactured in a number that is according to the plan that is made before the designing of the product starts .once in the production it can be increased or decreased based on the sales and market of the product.Product Development Team ModelFor successful development of each product good man power is the key resource. Skilled work force acts as the backbone in every project. To complete our project successfully we require a team of about 9 members which include1 cast Manager1 Electronics Design plan1 imbed Systems Engineer1 Software Developer1 Engineer for Quality Assurance1 Financial Advisor2 Sales and market Personnel Project manager will manage the overall project and will be responsible to manage and monitor all the project activities and mange for the project development. Project manager will also be responsible to bridge the initiative between top management and the members of the project development team.Role of the electronics design engineer would be to design the circuitry of sniffer and smell regenerator. He will also responsible to design the digital circuits of the system and selection of appropriate microchips which will be used in the hardware of the Digital Olfactory System.Embedded System engineer will be responsible to write the device drivers and to design routines for microchips which will be used in scent sniffer and regenerator these microchips will coordinate with computer through device driver software which will also be developed by the system programmer.Software developer will be responsible to design the system interface and coordinate with imbed programmer to develop a mutual plan of software develop ment for the make.Quality assurance engineer will monitor the quality of the product at each level he will also give his recommendations to the product development team to improve the quality and performance of the product at all phases of development.Role of Financial Advisor would be to hang on track of the finances at each phase. He will also provide feasible financial solutions in a particular situation.Marketing and sales executives will make the plans and strategies to promote the product. They conduct market research and launch advertising campaigns.Development Process For Finance And Time cash in handWe have a budget of about 5 million Swedish Krons to accomplish our project. We are intended to allocate the financial resources mentioned below intelligent Property Rights IssueTo protect our innovation from imitation and illegal write we will get the intellectual property rights of our product. Our product is combination of hardware and software. The hardware will be patent ed and the software will be copy righted. To get the patent rights of our product we have reserved an amount of 200,000 SEK in our budget.Commercialization PhaseIn this chapter we discuss the diffusion model of commercialization phase of our product. Commercialization is the last phase of innovation process model according to our stage gate model.Type Of Market baseThis is the final and very important stage of the project, as it decides the success or failure of the product in the market. A good marketing dodging leads towards the success of the product in the market. For our project we have focused on market research in a great detail, we will also going to induct two marketing and sales executive to make business plans and do market research. Before launching the product into market we will test it in all conditions and perspectives.After the careful examination of our product we will perform the test marketing (Pilot Launch) of our product. According to businessdictonary.com th e description of test marketing isProduct development stage where the product and its marketing plan are exposed to a carefully chosen prove of the population for deciding if to reject it before its full scale launch. Test marketing is an experiment conducted in a field laboratory (the test market) comprising of actual stores and real-life buying situations, without the buyers knowing they are participating in an military rating exercise. It simulates the eventual market-mix to ascertain consumer reaction. Depending on the quality and quantity of sales data required for the final decision, test marketing may last from few weeks to several months. receivable to its high cost, however, test marketing is more qualified for fast moving packaged goods than for consumer durablesAny marketing strategy is incomplete without advertising. (I have seen an interesting quote about advertising somewhere without advertising its like smiling in the darkness) On successful completion of the pilo t launch of the product the product will be advertise trough all the media e.g. TV, radio, Internet, newspapers, magazines, hand bills etc.Diffusion ModelThe Product Diffusion Curve is a useful model that helps a company to think about who it should be targeting at different stages of the life of its product or service. Understanding the Product Diffusion Curve, we can target our marketing efforts intelligently, getting the best returns from our efforts.At the start of launch of our product sales is expected very low. Our product will not only be sold as a separate peripheral device for computer but it will also be integrated in Apple laptops, digital cams and cell phones. So all the customer of these products will be attracted to a revolutionary new feature of transmitting and parsimoniousness smell. This will increase the sales of the product and companies will earn a maximum profit within a time period of one year.According to Bessant and Tidd (2007, P342) there are several char acteristics which effect the diffusion of the product. sex act Advantage Our technology is a totally new idea and there is no company using such technology in their products. Due this new feature the people will be attracted to buy those products which will be equipped with digital olfactory system.Compatibility Our system will be compatible with all the existing products (in which we are going to add it) in the market e.g. laptops, digital cameras and cell phones.Complexity The working of the products equipped with DOS will be very simple there would be only one button on computers, cameras and cell phones to activate / deactivate whether the smell capturing or not. Similarly on retrieving the scented file the system will prompt that the file has extra feature of scent and on activate that feature the user can enjoy the real scent while retrieving the file.Trail ability The demonstration of functionality of our system will be given at every sales point and this feature will be use d for the marketing of the products having DOS.Observe ability The functionality and performance of the products having DOS will be observed keenly for a period of 6 months and if any problem occurs it will be try to resolve. There would also be a parallel research to improve quality of our system.ReferencesWebsiteshttp//library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00386/smell/funtosmell.htm (Accessed on 2010-03-01)http//www.insyte-consulting.com/Home/InTheNews/Newsletter/JanuaryFebruary2009/AlternativeModelsHelpManageProductDevelopmentRisk (Accessed on 2010-03-04)Books